Development and Human Capital Interlinks: Literature Study

Human Capital Formation and Development

Abstract

This paper concentrates to see the relationship between the human capital and development reviewing papers around the concern. The emphasis on human capital is gearing development addressing multiple areas of concerns. It is reported that the areas which were left behind by early developmental practices like:  inclusions, social ownership, conflicts, environmental issue and social transformations are better addressed by human capital development approach. On contrary, human capital is often reported fluid and can migrate based upon the labor needs, job satisfaction, country's policy, geographical proximity, and culture, create challenges to the development. Developed economies have identified the challenges and are investing more to retain skill and continually update workforce in their countries. The lessons from the past recessions have been captured in the new policies. In turn the human capital and development is also contingent to politics making negative or positive impacts on development.

Keywords: Human capital, Development, Education and Trainings, Economy, Labor.

I like to start the paper from a sharing from 'The Economist's' quote, which immensely talks about the development achieved by China, sooner I will turn to the human capital study revealing the changes in between 1955-99 (in China)by Wang and Yao (2001), a study by World Bank and will couple this information with other studies.

The Economist (2001, p. 23, March 10) writes,

“Ask what has been the most stunning economic event of the past century, and many people might cite the case of China in the two decades since it opened up. In that time the economy has grown more than fivefold, incomes have quadrupled, and 270m Chinese have been lifted out of absolute poverty. Yet with a couple more decades’ hindsight, that achievement might be superseded by what may now be about to happen in the world’s most populous country. ……The coming two decades, on the other hand, offer the possibility of an even more extraordinary pace of economic change.”

            Wang and Yao ( 2001) reports China’s performance in economic growth and poverty reduction has been remarkable and is an on-going debate about whether this growth is mainly driven by productivity or factor accumulation.  The two author has tried to explore the whether the human capital stock during 1952-1999, has accounted the growth. The study from the two senior consultants to World Bank reveals the human capital in fact has contributed very positively to the growth of China. In the discussion, human capitalization is reported always positive to development at the mean time the study also reports the human accumulation (population) remained problem to china during reform period, 1952-1977. But moving ahead of the time means 1978-1999, the human accumulation were gradually converted to the human skill, the paper even takes about the processes within it. “After incorporating human capital, the growth of total factor productivity still plays a positive and significant role during the reform period 1978-1999” (ibid.). The study establishes, “A higher educational attainment indicates higher quality of workers” (ibid. p. 7 para.4). The scholars have collected data from variety of means and are cautious to define the reason of rapid development of China. On previous exercise on the developing human capital, they have even brought the history. Quoting the different survey, the study reports around 70% of China’s population were without formal schooling after World War II (1937-1945) and the civil war (1945-1949). In the 1950s, there was a widespread movement to eradicate illiteracy. In the 1960s, the implementation of an obligatory/mandatory nine-year education policy began. The 1960 policy for compulsion schooling though not materialized to rural areas but was able to produce required human capital for developing new China. The march remained continued and China at present has a good human capital, contributing to the development. Scholars make inferences from the data that a good number of people accumulation including human capital is moving away from China, ‘The recent declining rate of human capital accumulation is a matter of concern, if China is to sustain its growth and welfare improvement in the next decade, reports Wang and Yao (2001). The article has clearly messaged human capital accumulation can lead to accelerated development even in a challenging condition.

The replacement of physical capital accumulation by human capital accumulation as the prime engine of economic growth has changed the qualitative impact of inequality on the process of development. The physical capital role in development not merely stood positive in all directions. Galor (2011) reports in early stages of industrialization, as physical capital accumulation was a prime source of economic growth, inequality was enhanced but it still enhanced the process of development by channeling resources towards individuals whose marginal propensity to save is higher (p. 1). In later stages of development, however, as human capital has become the main engine of economic growth, a more equal distribution of income, in the presence of credit constraints, has stimulated investment in human capital and economic growth. This indicates that the human capital development not only relatively accelerated development only but also supported for equal distribution of the development to different cluster of the society.

While Wang & Yao (2001) warns China to check the movement of human capital to retain development growth; Beine, Docquier, & Rapoport (2001) writes on the evidences of brain drain its impact on economic growth, comparing the theory and the practices. At the end of the day, the scholars have developed the model and calculated the impacts of migrations on human capital formation and growth in the source country of migrants of developing world. According to their model, The first impact, is  that migration opportunities foster investments in education since it is awarded a higher expected  return when the economy is opened to migrations; The second impact, undoubtedly detrimental but which should not be the sole consideration, is due to the departure of some, if not all educated agents. They evaluate the sign of the total impact depends on which effect dominates. At the theoretical level, they have derived the conditions for a Beneficial Brain Drain (BBD) to be observed. Their model show a BBD is likely to occur in two cases:

a.       When the economy is originally closed to an underdevelopment trap and that migration probabilities are not too high, and

b.      When the economy already exhibits a relatively high growth performance and that migration probabilities take intermediate values (ibid.).

            Both of the probabilities concern that the economic benefits remains high when the brains are retained in the country. The scholars have deployed the entire article to see the impacts of different drivers initiating the migration. The summary with the article articulates with the concern that higher economy can retain the brains or the economy closed to underdevelopment trap can retain the brain and thereby making positive change in the economy of the developing country.

A study commissioned by European Union, and conducted by Fuente & Ciccone (2002) expands the scope of human capital wider to the economic development. It has clearly marked the link in between the knowledge economy and human capital. It evaluates an increase in human capital contributes to widen the social capital thereby easing to address different social challenges. The study team evaluate if, societies are marked by a high level of mutual trust and cohesion, effective regulation of conflicts of interest, a high degree of civic mindedness and respect for law and standards of conduct, participation of individuals in community life and their involvement in public responsibilities, they will also deliver a higher standard of well-being. These are all possible with the increased human capital. The report at the end of the research with much analysis recommends different knowledge and skill undertakings to increase the livelihood standards of European community. The recommendations include;

...extending education and training to ensure that the technical and scientific personnel are available to allow new technologies to be developed and adopted; supporting lifelong learning in order to counter the increasingly rapid obsolescence of skills in a period of rapid technological change; improving the basis for accumulation of human capital for scientific research; since much of this capital derives from research itself, policy should strengthen the existing link between higher education and private and public research; concentrating public spending on improving the skills of those from disadvantaged backgrounds; promoting action to improve educational outcomes, both by reviewing teaching programmes and methods and by increasing expenditure, if necessary.

            The education and training is a key to human capital, to create knowledge based economy. The north had identified and made the policy aligning to knowledge based economy and foster human capital through education and trainings. 

            A discussion paper series edited by Cervallati and Sunde (2002) tries to find the relationship in between human capital formation, life expectancy and process of economic development. The paper argues that the idea that human capital is a central factor of production and at the same time helps to improve the longevity and productivity of future generations. In turn, individuals make their decisions concerning human capital acquisition by taking their life expectancy as well as the economic environment into account. At the individual level, becoming educated is costly in terms of time, which induces a complementarity between the returns to human capital and the remaining lifetime available to enjoy those returns. Human capital-driven technological progress reinforces this complementarity. This leads to a potential virtuous circle. The paper to its summary concludes that;

This paper provides a unified theory of the transition in income, life expectancy, education and population, experienced by the Western world when passing from an environment of economic stagnation to sustained growth. The transition is based on the interplay between human capital formation, technological progress, and life expectancy. A positive feedback between human capital accumulation and longevity is eventually triggered when endogenous skill-biased technological progress provides sufficiently high returns to human capital for large fractions of the population to outweigh the costs in terms of lifetime spent on education. (Abstract, ibid.)

            This type of study brings a greater hope in the global transition where, some parts of the world still are striving for basic needs. The human capital fostering knowledge economy and people life expectancy and again creating a positive loop would definitely create more sustainable future.

            The increasing human capital formation and driving knowledge based economy has been accepted as an upcoming practice by most of the countries. Professor Diamond (2008), the execuitive of The Economic and Social Research Council evaluates governments all over the world want their countries to have high skill economies and are in the direction to have a well-educated workforce. Some Europeans have made a policy address, appreciating the connection between economic success and education and has widened the participation of University, as well as lifelong learning. Diamond (2008) takes quotes of Prime Minister Gordon Brown, "already our Asian rivals are competing not just in low-skilled manufacturing, but in high-tech products and services. Once, we worried about a global arms race. The challenge this century is a global skills race and that is why we need to push ahead faster with our reforms to extend education opportunities for all". This manifests the north concern of increasing skill as to compete with south; and economy is being driven by the knowledge over early convention of materials and production. The study by the council (2008) has clearly marked a positive correlation in between education and economy. A comparative graph from their study substantiates it. 

Source: Source: Economic and Social Research Council (2008), London.

            This shows the globalization of high skill. One can clearly mark the reasons of prompt recovery of recession across USA and non-stooping economic growth in BRIC economy. Further the delayed addressed to recession in UK and France can be linked to above graph. This is legible comparison that evidence that high skill are important component for sustained economy.

            Human capital and knowledge economy role for development is an established theory. Furthering the scholars are now attentive on distinguishing different of form of human capital and the relative impacts it makes to the different facets of development. Iversen and Stephen (2008) note that there are different forms of human capital formation across different advanced democracies.  In their research, they evaluate the politics is also determinant for influencing the type of human capital formation. Looking human capital formation from power resources theory and welfare production regime theory they see three different worlds of human capital;

one characterized by redistribution and heavy investment in public education and industry-specific and occupation-specific vocational skills; one characterized by high social insurance and vocational training in firm-specific and industry specific skills but less spending on public education; and one characterized by heavy private investment in general skills but modest spending on public education and  redistribution (ibid.).

            All three human capital developments have increased investments on education and training, but there is a relative difference within the education and training sector. Pose and Bufi (2005) were early to Iversen and Stephen (2008) marks 'the market' equally important in defining the need of human capital. Definitely education stock was important for the development and economy but it was not alone the most important to perform, job satisfaction and control migration. Working entirely with the secondary data of European Community the scholars conclude that the factors such as the matching of educational supply and local labor needs, job satisfaction, and migration may have a stronger connection to economic performance than the traditional measures of educational stock (ibid.). This is quite simple; the human capital in turns would also have reciprocal effects of the other economic and social actions. The authors even claim the same to be the reason for the regional disparities; it has challenges in the EU-counterpart has its root of not understanding this interactions and effects (ibid.). The concern of migration of skills has heavy impacts on the economy, and development. Boschma, Erikson & Lindgren (2008) evaluates this drive is not only the result of economy and others but is also because of geographical proximity.  

Conclusion

All articles reviewed put emphasis on human capital gearing development across the world, in addition it even has been able to address other social challenges; inclusions, social ownerships promotes social capital, transforming for the change in the society. But on process this has also generated some challenges, viz. agriculture. Economic policy and condition of a country is determinant for migration. So countries have to be cautious defining the policies as well as creating migration trap for brains to accelerate the development.  Europeans have increased the investment on education and training to compete in developing world. The concern of human capital approach for development becomes more relevant with some of the literature which finds a positive interlink in between human capital development and life expectancy in addition to economic development. These interlinks of the human capital have compelled countries like UK to have policy and Universities to produce skill human workforce and continually update all for new innovative programs. This does not merely mean that human capital is a magic wand to heal all development challenges rather it is also affected by several others; especially the labor needs, job satisfaction, migration, etc. Further the factor like migration is even linked with geographical proximity. Human capital is an important asset for sustainable economic growth and development and is equally contingent to various economic and social action and actors; in addition the politics and geography also shape the outputs of the human capital and development.

References

 Beine, M., Docquier, F. & Rapoport, H. (2001). Brain drain and economic growth: theory and evidence. Journal of Development Economics. Vol. 64 2001 275–28. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com

Boschma, R., Eriksson, R., &Lindgren, U. (2008). How does labour mobility affect the performance of plants? The importance of relatedness and geographical proximity. Journal of Economic Geography 9 (2009) pp. 169–190 doi:10.1093/jeg/lbn041.

Cervellati, M. Sunde, U. (September, 2002). Human Capital Formation, Life expectancy and process of economic development. Bonn: Institute for Study of Labor. Retrieved from Project Muse database, KUSOM Access.

Diamond, I. (2008). Education, globalization and the knowledge economy. (Ed). London: The Economic and Social Research Council. Retrieved from www.tlrp.org.

Fuente, A. & Ciccone, A. (2002). Human capital in a global and knowledge based economy. Belgium: European Commission. Retrieved from European Union Commission Web-Portal.

Gaolar, O. (2011). Inequality, human capital formation and the process of development. North Holland: Author. Retrieved from Project Muse database, KUSOM Access.

Iversen, T. & Stephens, J. D. (2008). Partisan politics, the welfare, and three worlds of human capital formation. Comparative political studies. Vol 41 4(5). Sage publication. DOI: 10.1177/0010414007313117.

Pose, R., & Bufi, M. V. (2005). Education, migration, and job satisfaction: the regional returns of human capital in the EU. Journal of Economic Geography 5 (2005) pp. 545–566. doi:10.1093/jeg/lbh067.

Storper, M. & Scott, A. J. (2009). Rethinking human capital, creativity and urban growth. Journal of Economic Geography 9 (2009) pp. 147–167 doi:10.1093/jeg/lbn052

Wang, Y., & Yao, Y. (2001). Sources of china’s growth, 1952-99: Incorporating human capital accumulation. Beijing: The World Bank. Retrieved from the World Bank Web-Portal.

 Parbat Dhungana

Thanks 

Development and Education for Sustainable Development: Nepal Perspective

Education for Sustainable Development for Nepal

Context

Despite majestic natural beauty and biological diversity, the country never colonized and sustained its identity throughout the history. The weak point to it was it remained comparatively isolated from the rest world. The country is striving to sustain the regained democracy after major political disturbance, which include the travel from monarchy (of over three decade) to civil war (over a decade). The present sociopolitical and socioeconomic status and ongoing changes clearly reflect more challenges ahead.

The developmental challenges get reflected in an individual to the National Policies. The practices and scenarios shows development dynamism has very less or no meaning to our contexts. Sustainable (SD) simply stands a developmental jargon to the country. Although we have expressed our commitment for SD in various global forums, we are not able to formulate a clear policy to address it. This is verification that Sustainable Development issue is not understood to its practical implications.

Contrast to this, there exist sustainable practices through indigenous/inherent knowledge system. This makes the nature always nurturing and balance. Modernity must thank those people of nature, striving really hard and away from so called ‘development’ making sustainable development. Which, the Annex 1 world has taken recently. If we could refine and propagate various indigenous knowledge practices and system, there exist much sustainable practices. The cultural diversity and religious practices itself have many deep-seated sustainable values. Nothing could stand as education to bring changes in people’s behavior. The time ahead is more challenging for all societies. Responsive environment behavior cum social behavior and sustainability of such behaviors are one of the major concerns of present time. And it is believed that education can only take this accountability.

Education is understood in different sense but in general education refers to mainstream education. Different studies had revealed education at different levels serve for different interests to individual’s and the society. It is believed that the foundations of behaviors are led at early schooling. The school basically comprises learners, curriculum, and teacher as the core components. Behavioral induction and reinforcement of positive behavior thereby sustaining desired behavior is one of the major aims of education. The humanity at this stance must induce responsive environment as well as social behaviors for sustainable future.

We have been facing many problems related to different issues; natural resources, governance  peace, conflicts, behavior, livelihood and lifestyle etc. It is difficult to predict where the world would lead in absence of good environment and society.

Coming to one mostly quoted saying of Einstein “The significant problems we face cannot be solved by the same level of thinking we used when we created them”. This strikes a question in mind, what enables you to think at different level? Yes, the answer is ‘Education’. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is emerging adjectival education which encompasses to address these issues. Human thoughtfulness has brought good alternative to address the challenges ahead. ESD goals and priorities would definitely bring the changes. Though the country have some components of ESD as hidden and integrated curriculum, still a lot left to adequately address and implement ESD to our settings. On this regard this paper attempts to discuss on ESD scope and its integration to Nepalese contexts.

Shifting Paradigm of Sustainable Development: Historical Preview

The interlacement of nature and human is so immense that human existence cannot be imagined in isolation. The experience and practices of human has verified that every individual is a part of a society moreover biological society and cannot be seen in isolation  The wholeness and interconnectedness of entities within the planet ensures stability of the system. And only the stable system can feed the humanity as well as others. We are now in a stake to communicate the integral relationship between human, society and nature. Communicating and responding responsibly to this relationship is a crucial action to the well being of planet inhabitants. This in fact is a sustainable practice.

Sustainable development is knowledge inbuilt and foresee for better future gained from experiences and reflections of our practices. Sustainable development is a multifaceted address to the challenges which development has brought to today’s world.

The term sustainable development got spread after its use by IUCN (1980) in ‘World Conservation Strategy’ and more in practice after United Nation’s Commission on Environment and Development also known as Bruntdland’s Commission’s Report (‘Our Common Future’, 1983-1987). The early definition focus was quite narrow to natural resources. Sustainable development was defined as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs”.  The concept focuses on improvement of life and living standards without destroying the nature. People’s thirst to development drove them to personal benefits and as by product to this appeared as environmental problems. This could be the reason why Sustainable Development focused in environmental issues.

Though the initiation of Sustainable Development was to be more responsive to environment and resources, now it is developing as a separate paradigm. Sustainable Development addresses wider area. ‘Agenda 21’ an action plan document released in ‘The Earth Summit’ (1992) is taken as action plan for SD. The document in its 27 principles incorporates the components for development for twenty first century. This incorporation and address brought a new height to Sustainable Development. The progress in this direction has been continuous. Now Sustainable Development is characterized by its various attributes. Bhandari and Abe (2003) stating one major characteristic as, “It is an interface of the three “E’s”… They are not mutually exclusive” (p.16).

Figure1: Bhandari and Abe (2003) diagrammatic representation of areas of concern of SD(p.16) (Copyright permissions for academic and educative purpose)

Respecting the vocabulary used not implicitly but also; Economy implies development, Equity implies society, and Environment implies nature/ecology, this indicate the broad areas of SD. Furthermore, SD has been accepted as an enlarged view that extends beyond simple measures of “growth”. Quality life requirements like, happiness, satisfaction, secured and descent life, fair, equitable and accessibility are now components taken care by sustainable development.

“Sustainability is achieved when all people on Earth can live well without compromising the quality of life for future generations”. (Jucker, 2003, para 4)

 The Sustainable Development document in a glance seems addressee to human but getting deeper understanding, one can easily realize it proclaims for continual universal equity of the earth resources for all creatures. UNESCO taking responsibility to communicate the essence of SD through education has elaborated the understanding of SD through its new definition. It states, Sustainable development is a vision of development that encompasses populations, animal and plant species, ecosystems, natural resources and that integrates concerns such as the fight against poverty, gender equality, human rights, education for all, health, human security, intercultural dialogue, etc (UNESCO, para 2).

 The early start SD now has now a different face. The challenges exists ahead to transmit the essence of SD as there would be a resist to the change. International forum found that education can take this challenge. The three E’s; Education, economy and environment (physical and social environment) has always stood crucial in transforming societies. Education has always stood crucial in these aspects as it has demonstrated its efficiency. This coined a new adjectival subject Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) for sustainability action.  

Education for Sustainable Development

The upcoming of ESD was quite similar to SD concepts and understandings. The subject was taken to address the environmental issues. With the paradigm shift of SD and its interpretations the subject also took a new face. Defining ESD became a tricky game for professional and institutions working in the area. It is because of dynamic nature of SD and education itself. Here it becomes very relevant to review some of the definitions of ESD. This would even flash the development and scope of ESD.

According to Agenda 21 ESD should “deal with the dynamics of the physical, biological, social, economic and spiritual environment” (United Nations, 1992).

ESD means a lifelong learning process that leads to an informed and involved citizenry having the creative problem solving skill, scientific and social literacy, and commitment to engage in responsible individual and cooperative actions. These actions will help ensure an environmentally sound and economically prosperous future.10 goals(Health And The Environment , Economic Prosperity , Equity ,Conservation Of Nature, Stewardship, Sustainable Communities , Civic Engagement , Population ,International Responsibility , Education express the shared aspirations of SD and drive to sustainability (PCSD, 1996, para 3).

ESD is about how to stimulate and guide participation and learning in achieving a society that develops sustainability (IUCN, 2000).

According to UNESCO, “ESD is an emerging but dynamic concept that encompasses a new vision of education that seeks to empower people of all ages to assume responsibility for creating a sustainable future.” (UNESCO 2002, "From Rio to Johannesburg" p.1)

According to APCC-UNESCO, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is a teaching and learning practice that enables us to anticipate, tackle and resolve our common issues in hopes of averting a problematic scenario for our children and their offspring down the generations as they continue to live on the planet. (para. 5)

ESD demands a holistic address as it involves the three interrelated spheres of the environment, society, and economics, whose interconnectedness is inseparable. Culture, belief and practices are other components to be addressed along with above mentioned spheres as components within them. ESD to its holistic nature has a challenge of accommodating human belief like spirituality and soul.

Finally it becomes relevant to share the vision and perspective of ESD set by UNESCO;

Education is not only an end in itself. It is a key instrument for bringing about the changes in the knowledge, values, behaviors and lifestyles required to achieve sustainability and stability within and among countries, democracy, human security and peace. Education at all levels and in all its forms constitutes a vital tool for addressing virtually all global problems relevant for sustainable development, in particular poverty, HIV/AIDS, environmental degradation, peace and stability, knowledge formation and sharing, rural development and changes in production and consumption patterns. (UNESCO, DESD)

This makes difficult to state rhetorically the essence of ESD. ESD is taken as education that instills values and code of conduct as a basis for sustainable development. ESD is to connect local-global issues to best subside all problem most productively.

ESD to our Context

Education is believed as a driver for change through contribution in knowledge, values, technology, behaviors, lifestyles, culture, etc. of individual as well as society.  These components are determinants of sustainability. Back to our/Nepal situation we find peace, infrastructure, environmental challenges, sociopolitical situation, governance from local to central level, and many more messy problem. The early knowledge and present practices are making it more complex. This stance could be a good piece of time for a ‘lesson’ to find cause effect relationship reviewing our past. I believe we still lack to see developmental, environmental and social issues interlaced. This is where I find ESD a strong component as a key to change our status (practices and mind) and lead us towards sustainable development.

We at this stance are just in an urge to disseminate concern on SD. We have a long way to make National Sustainable Development Strategy, join collaborative actions for SD which are basics to sustainability.  A bottom up and top bottom approaches simultaneously has been found effective on late implementation of policy and action. This justifies the need of ESD to our context.

Scope of ESD

UNESCO- Decade of Education for Sustainable Development UNESCO- DESD (2005-2014) institutional focus to address ESD illustrates the high scope and importance of this subject. It interlinks all aspects of livelihood of all creatures of the world with human at the centre. The concern of the subject is for humanity over personal, and it has a crosslink with EFA and MDG. The subject has an overgrowing concern and has a wide scope and importance in upcoming days.

The International Implementation Scheme (IIS) lists the following four points as the objectives of DESD:

• to facilitate networking, linkages, exchange and interaction among stakeholders in ESD;
• to foster an increased quality of teaching and learning in education for sustainable development;
• to help countries make progress towards and attain the Millennium Development Goals through ESD efforts;
• to provide countries with new opportunities to incorporate ESD into education reform efforts.

The subject to its objective and address reflect interdisciplinary nature. We have been in practice of ESD, but not systematized and given needful address. We are unfair that we are not inheriting several of the indigenous knowledge in our education. This could be one of the reasons that nature is revealing symptoms of early and present practices in different forms. Moreover present development is not able to address people’s developmental demand and sustainability. Physical development is not significant if people themselves are not happy. This expands the scope of the ESD, as it addresses these issues.

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is more than the acquisition of knowledge. It includes all activities that help to create a population that is both literate about the sustainability challenges and engaged in the solutions. ESD is aimed at stimulating and enhancing actions for a sustainable future (TESD, para. 4). 

One of the expert participant view is noteworthy here, “I learned that nearly all experts you invited to participate in the ESD debate put a focus on environmental education when they reflect on education for sustainable development. There are some among them who are threatened by ESD: ESD could destroy Environmental Education. Others are more open to ESD: they think that EE can (only) survive by the integration in ESD and by accepting the impact of other topics (e.g. the development topics). This discussion seems to be very similar in the different countries. (Personal communication Norbert Reichel, Germany as cited in IUCN, 2000, p.58)

This growing discipline as a subject has immense objective to address development, environment and humanity as interrelated disciplines. The concern of the subject cross cuts many subject issues. At this stance of time, offering a formal separate course as ESD may not be very feasible as school pupil are already overburden with subjects, but its incorporation is inevitable. Still delivering ESD as a separate subject is another challenge. But ESD as a subject and its incorporation in an early school mainstream is very essential. Higher education in ESD, research and practices,  evaluation could find out a better alternative to address ESD to our contexts.

Kathmandu University School of Education screening the scope of the subject and its relevancy in regional context has introduced and Master program in Environment Education and Sustainable Development.

Integrated Environment Literacy Program (IELP) is yet another important program in non formal education addressing sustainability issues. Attempt are ongoing to institutionalize the program through CLCs. CLC have a focus for Poverty Alleviation through Income Generation Program and Quality of Life Improvement of Girls and Women and Disadvantaged Populations.

These discussions and examples reflect importance of ESD for sustainable future. Education’s contribution is rarely counted in addressing sociopolitical issues. The other addresses do not include deep socio-ecological thinking which leads to instability. In this concern the ESD’s higher penetration is a high demand of time.

Curricular Issues (purpose and place)

When talking about curriculum, mainstream education comes in mind. I believe curriculum is an answer to a basic question, what should schools teach? This question imposes another important question, who should decide, what should school teach? When, where, who, how, should the teaching go? are further explanations and elaborations related to curriculum.

Legendary curricularist Tyler (1949) says an answer to four questions would shape curriculum development.

What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?

What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain that purposes?

How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

How can we determine whether these; purposes are being attended? (p.1)

Later worker Taba (1962), Pinar (1975) elaborated and developed more organized way of developing curriculum. Now there are different prospects of defining and developing curriculum.

The present time has brought different ideologies and discussions among curricularist, the early framework of thinking about curriculum are changing. Curriculum ideologies are making its way through religious orthodoxy to progressivism, multiculturalism, developmentalism/constructivism, and so on. Although different ideologies come in curricular discussions, it is believed that rarely educational practice adhere to one ideology.

The pillars of ESD clearly indicate that it is an integrated and interlinked subject. The curriculum of ESD should focus the local contexts. Curriculum should focus contents, values, and competency. SD curriculum in whole should focus for wellbeing of individual and humanity.

ESD to its nature demands an interdisciplinary address. The focus of ESD is cross cutting and links intra personal to biosphere issues through interpersonal issues. On one hand the ESD has a wide content coverage with literary focus and the other is behavior, mass behavior. It even addresses many abstract intangible subtitles like happy, values, beliefs, soul and spirituality. So to its discrete discipline, it cannot be subsumed under environment science, science or social science. This demands that it should be approached in an interdisciplinary manner and infused in all content area. However, the good volume of ESD can be addressed in social science/studies.

ESD coverage and its importance to present time cannot be conveniently subsumed by any subject of school curricula. Despite of attention some ingredients still gets left behind. It is very difficult to address some aspects like, behaviors, value, deep-thinking; these areas should be addressed through teachers’ efforts.

Concluding about ESD curriculum design to our status, it cannot stand as monodisciplinary subject and must be incorporated into practice as interdisciplinary curriculum. The scientific environmental literacy contents can be incorporated by subjects like Science and Health. The issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, energy issues, etc. can be included under Science. Health challenges induced by mal practices and natural calamities, diseases outbreaks, etc. can be discussed under health. The social environmental literacy including many other aspects of SD like; social injustice, economic instability, resource governance, conflicts, etc. should be incorporated in social studies. The developmental understanding viable for future generation and with the philosophy to address all living creatures can be incorporated in Social Studies.

The non-content area of ESD is yet another subject which requires attention. Several aspects like culture, value, deep-thinking, perceptions cannot be influenced by one single curriculum. These focuses of ESD can be infused in different academic, co-curricular and extra -curricular activities. This implies implementing ESD curricula is one of the great challenges.

To the present understanding; rhetoric educational components can be placed as interdisciplinary curriculum and non rhetoric attributes of ESD to be addressed as multidisciplinary curriculum.

Pedagogy of ESD

A particular pedagogy may not stand as a complete pedagogy to teach ESD. Studying the coverage of ESD, it would be unfair to address by certain/single pedagogy. Environment, culture, society, economy and governance are major components within the ESD. This makes clear the subject has two major areas; first ESD knowledge and literacy, and other ESD practices. Different researches has shown that learning always have some effect on practices. Being objectively clear on the aim of ESD may help us to find which pedagogy/ies particularly works for a context.

The ESD pedagogy should focus two major aspects; ESD= Education (K+S+A) + Competency. The education components (knowledge, skill and attitude) can be transferred through the contemporary pedagogical practices. Progressivism can be accepted as regular dynamics and succession on education. Transferring the educational components can be done through the regular practice. The competency here is in the sense of readiness to act. The induction of behavior to act and response acceptably is the competency focused by ESD. On this regard, the pedagogy should focus on experiential learning so that the local issue gets addressed. Use of local contexts, consideration of environmental, developmental and social sensitivity issue, is core focus of ESD. Value and citizenry issues are yet other important aspects. This demands collegiate/cooperative and experiential learning. Project work, action research, cultural studies, social laws study, advocacy, case study, problem solving, etc. could stand as effective pedagogical practices for effective teaching and learning process.

Teachers for ESD

Meeting the purpose of ESD, a teacher with several qualities is prerequisite. When we focus on ESD teachers, the first instance three major concerns come in focus.

Teacher competencies,

Teacher preparation and

Continuous Professional growth and support for teachers.

ESD demands a well-informed teacher with a blend of natural and social sciences. Environmental literacy, Responsible Environmental Behaviors (REB), training and conditioning skill for fostering; creativity, homogenous thinking, narrowing choices, autonomous thinking and degrees of self-determination are important characteristics for an ideal ESD teacher. The teacher should hold an eco-friendly well absorbed leadership phrased as ‘Organic Leadership’ in all areas. Teacher competencies in overall should be able to change from ‘notion of crisis’ to ‘notion of hope’ and from ‘I live’ to ‘we live’. Such transforming teachers should have a good knowledge, skill, attitudes and competency.

Preparing the teachers to address the ESD in Nepalese context is really challenging. This becomes more challenging in the sense that the present higher education does not have any program to address to this demand. A long term strategy would definitely address the gap but the immediate address is somewhat challenging. The existing teachers’ population holds good number of social studies teacher and natural science teachers. ESD demands the blend of both and in addition to that it also demands competency.

The immediate rescue to our status is to train social studies and natural science teacher to address the teacher need for ESD. Training them to interdisciplinary role could cover immediate present needs. This is a good rescue in the sense, this stands as most efficient way for a country like Nepal. With all this, a key consideration not to be avoided is ESD demands educated and competent teachers. The present higher education must make its focus to address this need.

Coming to the core values of ESD, it is no doubt it is a transformative educational subject with a multifaceted address to the challenges of developing society. UNESCO-DESD is a key response and a timely address of our future. The time is not only the ‘time to worry’ but we need to take it as ‘time to work’.

In Nepalese context, an accessible teacher preparation to address ESD does not exist. The government operated teacher training program has no address to ESD except some donor driven modular courses offered to teacher. These sort of short training programs stand more as a challenge for working professional as the whole physical, curricular, and mental mindset remains unchanged.  Practices have revealed mid-level intervention is not an appropriate way to address educational and cultural problems. Top-bottom and bottom-top approach should go simultaneously. Policy should adequately emphasize for ESD from central level and the local community should also be well informed about the ESD. This would even literate about SD to the general public. This would help getting one objective of DESD.

This would even click higher education institutions to address the issues. Talking on an issue of teacher preparation; Kathmandu University School of Education addresses the teacher demand for ESD. Department of Environment Education and Sustainable Development produces 15 to 20 teachers with a Master’s of Education Degree in Environment Education and Sustainable Development.

Despite of an urgent need to insert ESD in mainstream education, the Nepalese Education System has been unable to address the issue to its required level. The present Social Studies include many focuses of ESD but still need to reorganize from ESD perspective. A clear policy address may make easy prospects for existing teacher capacity enhancement focused to ESD.

ESD to its nature is a dynamic and transformational education. Development after being reconstructed and redefined in the light of ecology, economy and equity became sustainable development. Teacher’s job is to transmit the most recent education fostering competencies making aware about the history. On this professional journey, a teacher always strives for improvement and new information. Feeding teacher with all these essentials is continuous professional growth and support.

There may be several other components linked to it; motivation, job satisfaction, facilities, security, etc. and many more logistic issues. Excluding them in my discussion here I have focused on software part. The government has always formulated teacher support and training modeled by donor. There are several places in the country where formal and informal institutions are working on particular sector with no national policy guidelines. The later developed policy usually would hold precedents of actions, which in reality increases challenges. I am of the opinion that donor interest should be restricted in policy reviews not in formulations.

The present time demand an accessible teacher support center. The center should work for all teachers with certain provisions to address the different strata among basic education.  This would also make a way of revenue for the center and a challenge to be up-to-date. The educational earning can be deployed in other educational support for teachers. The center at its start may just serve the piecemeal professional help demanded from the local levels. But this becomes possible only when the government makes an effective policy to induce competition and motivation for public schools.

ESD to our contexts is a timely address for better future. The present symptoms are no doubt are the product of past practices. Starting from a local context to global issues, we can solve problems with the different level of thinking. ESD at its core induce critical and deep-thinking which certainly would pave a sustainable future for humanity and all living entities with materialistic world together.  So, on this ground I see ESD must be incorporated in our education system.

References

UNESCO (n.d.). Education for sustainable development. Retrived from http://www.unesco.org/en/esd/ on Sunday, November 15, 2010.

Rolf Jucker (2003) UNESCO's Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future: A critical Evaluation in the Trumpeter Volume 19 Number 2: UNESCO. Retrived from http://usp.umfglobal.org/main/show_passage/39 on Sunday, November 15, 2010.

IUCN( ) . The world conservation strategy. IUCN. Switzerland

Bhadari B. B. & Abe Osamu (2003) (Ed.). Education for sustainable development in Nepal views and visions. IJES. Japan

PCSD (n.d). Overview President’s council on sustainable development. http://clinton2.nara.gov/PCSD/index.html on on Sunday, November 15, 2010.

IUCN (2000). ESD debates. IUCN. Switzerland.

TESD (n. d.) http://usp.umfglobal.org/main/show_passage/39

Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago press. Chicago.

SOCIAL FUNCTION OF EDUCATION: FROM COMTE TO SEN

SOCIAL FUNCTION OF EDUCATION: FROM COMTE TO SEN

Abstract

Accepting the education’s role for development is obvious to most of the theories. But the priority differs considerably. Education’s social function is a distinctly discrete entity and perhaps not getting adequate discourse as other advancements. In this paper, I have tried to explore the education’s social concern as posed by some of the theories. It was a painstaking task to visualize the concern as most of the theorists do not have ‘distinct claims’ on the area. Despite the challenges, I could fairly crystalize that all theorist take education play a crucial role for the development of the society. For most of the theories, education is taken as one of the vehicle for change whereas Sen argue education stands ‘instrumental’ for creating ‘social opportunities’ thereby supplementing an informed choice for individual as well as society for ‘freedom’ - which he takes synonymous to the development.

Keywords: Education, Development, Social Function, Positivist, Marxist Theory, Weber, the Social Choice Theory, Nepal.

Introduction

Now it has been clear that education is a part of becoming ‘individual’ and individuals becoming a ‘social member’. At this stance it doesn’t stand worthy to have a debate whether education is a ‘private good’ or ‘social good’. Many researchers has already marked there are social as well as private returns from education.  Rather it is important to discuss what is the role of education in the society? in other words, what social function should education do? is a subject for academic discourse. The present structure of formal education has a very young history, moreover the State intervention for expanding education to (all) masses are a more recent practice. The structuration of education-schooling has some link with how sociologist and educationist take ‘what functions education should make for the society as a whole’. This paper concentrates to see how sociologists; Auguste Comte ( Postivist, 1798-1857 ); Karl Marx (Marxism,1818-1883);  Max Weber (Modern Sociological Thought,1864-1921);  Amratya Sen (Social Choice Theory, 1933, 79 years) see the social role of Education. I would even like to lens the same theoretical and philosophical praxis to local (Nepalese) contexts. This critical review hopefully will be able to set an academic discourse for understanding the role of social agent ‘education’ in building and transforming society. The article discusses about the different theoretical perspective on education under different heads.

Education and Comte

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is the founder of positivism, a philosophical and political movement which enjoyed a very wide diffusion in the second half of the nineteenth century (Bourdeau, 2007, 2011). This philosophical doctrine had subsequent success and influence as it expresses the climate of the times.

It rejects the entire enterprise of metaphysics and theology as unverifiable, substituting science and the scientific method in their place. Positivism leads to the formation of the social 'sciences,' that is, the belief that the methods of science and mathematics will unlock the mysteries of human behavior and lead to the improvement of that behavior. The departmentalized organization of the modern university is based on the positivist ideal. (MS, 2009)

Comte chose the word positivism on the ground that it indicated the “reality” and “constructive tendency” that he claimed for the theoretical aspect of the doctrine (Bourdeau, 2011). One can note his interest in a reorganization of social life for the good of humanity through scientific knowledge, and thus control of natural forces. It is clearly evident that two primary components of positivism, the ‘philosophy’ and the ‘polity’ (a program of individual and social conduct, as defined by Encarta Dictionaries, 2009), were merged by Comte in the religion where humanity was the object of worship as to Bourdeau, 2011).

Though not pinpointed, Comte had a great concern to the social function of education. He had repeatedly used the world humanity and linked the concern of education in developing humanity. For Comte as Mugloini (1999) states, “education, whose role was decisive for the future of humanity, was naturally addressed to the individual”. The arguments marked by different scholars clearly mark that the education effectiveness to Comte varies considerably to different but all agree that Comte finds it (education) essential component for the society. Mugloini takes several direct translated statements of Comte’s work to understand the educational consideration in Comte’s Positivism.

When Comte deprecates ‘the deplorable obsession with psychology’, he therefore draws attention to the fact that our knowledge is not psychological, but historical. He means in particular that, as the purpose of education is to enable human beings to attain humanity, it is not a question of coming down to the child’s level, but of raising the child to the dignity of a person. Subjectivity should not be abandoned to its anarchical drives; the first concern must be to ‘model the inside on the outside’.

There is no doubt that societies are the best schools for historical knowledge. Comte differs in the concern a school is for childhood. Besides enabling the child to become an adult in mind and feelings, it meditates humanity and its development on the childhood. The education should be more contributing to the society over individuals but through individuals. This in one hand accepts the present educational structuration and at the other argues for the openness of the institutions in the society. A crucial point to understand here is, he is not against the institution rather is not agreeing with the formative nature and claim of educational institutions preparing ‘individuals’. The education is more for society. Mugloini (1999) on evaluating Comte’s position on education marks, “A person had first to learn to adjust to the invariable order of things, and this was so as to better to adjust later to human order.”

Ritzer (2011)

Comte placed greater emphasis on the study of social dynamics, or social change. His theory of social dynamics is founded on the law of the three stages; i.e., the evolution of society is based on the evolution of mind through the theological, metaphysical, and positivist stages. He saw social dynamics as a process of progressive evolution in which people become cumulatively more intelligent and in which altruism eventually triumphs over egoism.

It is very clear that Comte has used the word Positivism in two senses, but coming to Education and Comte’s positivism, he has been generously kind to emphasizing education for change in ‘individual’ and contribute to the society. The education has to take over the role of making progressive changes and handling the humanitarian crisis. 

Ritzer (2011) attempted to sort out the bright half of Comte’s contribution to the society, where they mark the following positive contribution.

·      Comte coined the term "sociology" and may be viewed as its founder.

·      Comte thought of sociology as a positivistic science.

·      He elaborated four methods of sociology.

·      He distinguished social statics from social dynamics.

·      He was a macrosociologist.

·      He viewed social structures as taming individual egoism.

·      He offered a dialectical view of structural change.

·      He attempted to integrate theory and practice.

Mugloini (1999) says on education for Comte, “Education undoubtedly needs firmly established institutions, but it also needs that conviction which ‘the rebellious habits of modern thought’ continue, even nowadays, to repress or destroy”. Comte’s viewpoint establishes link of Education with spirituality and power and at the same time recommends Education to be general, aesthetic and practical (Mugloini, 1999).  Looking at the areas of contribution that Comte has made and going through the philosophy and educational concern, it is clearly out Comte’s positivism define the education has a great role for society; his education concerns, ‘as individual gets educated - the social order gets stable and progressive’. This marks; education for Comte contributes significantly to the society than individual and separates him from his contemporary materialististic Marxian Philosophy.

Education and Marx

One of the common academic practices seen in most of the countries in basic/public education is; ‘States in one hand insists the public education for traditional curricula and on the other hand advocates for autonomy of study in those schools’.  I compare this status even to Nepal and this is where we find confusions! I suppose we academicians need to debate deeper to know the interest of the players. The social function of education is a long established fact. Even Karl Marx in his speech to ‘General Education’ had posed his concern for education for society during his address at the General Council meeting of August 10, 1869 on the Basle Congress program:

Marx said there was a peculiar difficulty connected with this question. On the one hand a change of social circumstances was required to establish a proper system of education, on the other hand a proper system of education was required to bring about a change of social circumstances; we must therefore commence where we were.( The Bee-Hive, August 14, 1869 as cited from marxist.org)

Despite Marx along with Engels had a concern on education systems, the theory associated with them did not speak very widely about education.  “They developed theoretical perspectives on modern societies that have been used to highlight the social functions of education and their concepts and methods have served to both theorize and criticize education in the reproduction of capitalist societies, and to support projects of alternative education” (Kellner, 2004 ). Ivkovic (1999) also notes that the ‘classics of Marxism’ did not create any separate theory of education. But their thoughts are scattered in number of their works. Marxism marks the concern for developing dialectical-materialistic exercise, in a special philosophical teaching along with theory of society. These concerns come significantly on the issues of education and schooling. The educational society must account the Marxist position for education. Looking to the personality, many literature reports both (Marx and Engels) left bourgeois families to pursue a life of revolutionary scholarship and struggle. Marx view,

The materialist doctrine that men are products of circumstances and upbringing, and that, therefore, changed men are products of other circumstances and changed upbringing, forgets that it is men who change cirumstances and that it is essential to educate the educator himself.

(Marx, n.d. as cited in Kellner, 2004)

Marx here truly advocates the alternatives to the existing educational process. In the Manifesto, “expanded public education for the working class was one of the major demands, and henceforth both Marx and Engels saw themselves as providing education and theoretical guidance to the working class and socialist movement” (Kellner, 2004). Despite there had been no elaborations on institutional structuration/models but the theory manifests the existing educational institutions are within bourgeois society.  This demand for an alternative of education aligned to the Marxian theory, which as to Marx, education would help fully develop socialized individuals, create a cooperative and harmonious society, and unleash creativity in all of its forms. Kellner (2004) mark these ideas as ‘utopian vision’ of Communism.

Ivkovic (1999) on interpreting the Marxian theory to a practical level and at the same time sorting the education function lensing the theory finds some genuine educational and social concerns scattered in Marxian education and function for the society.

·               In the sociological research and study of the phenomena in education, the general laws and principles of the dialectical and historical materialism should be applied.

·               Marx and later Marxists have attributed an enormous, almost infinite power to education.

·               Education is socio-economically conditioned and it has a class character in the class society. But in modern education question concerning its role in reproducing the class society should be raised.

·               Education is an important medium of the reproduction of a particular (existing) socio-economic system as well as of its ideological system. Despite these two spheres (Education and Production) are radically different, Education needs to continue the production of work force (production) and the intellectuals needed for the continuous production process.  

·               Separation has caused the production to become a practical activity whereas education (as a spiritual production) has become a theoretical activity. The contemporary Marxist see the later as a powerful tool to bring acceptance to the desired ideology. (Compiled from Ivkovic, 1999)

One common concern shared elsewhere of Marx is "life is not determined by consciousness, but consciousness by life" to mean here, life is a materialistic component for Marxian philosophy. This makes a link of materialistic concern to every aspects including education, so education is also a matter, which is governed, used and stands a means for more socialized individual and society. The consideration of education heavily as a material of society is a peculiar to Marxian philosophy. And at the same time (to Marxian) though not very significant as to economy but can still stand as an important means to contribute a change to the society.

Education and Weber

Contrary to the Marxian theory which considers economic power as the main power for the society, Weber argues for multiple powers. Max Weber (1864-1920), a conflict theorist evaluates that formal education is an important mechanism of confirming the status of different power forms and legitimizing the powers. “Education is an important mechanism of status aggrandizement, economic organization and political legitimation in complex societies as different as industrial Germany and imperial china (Steven, 2007).

Understanding Weber’s position I evaluate there are two clearly marked aspects for education.

Weber was especially astute in his theorization of the importance of formal education in the development of Western modernity.  He explained that as societies modernize, inequalities of family, caste, and tribe gradually give way to hierarchies predicated on individual achievement.  In modern times individuals accumulate status as they move through the elaborate bureaucracies that characterize industrial societies: large corporations, centralized governments, big religious organizations, and schools.  (Steven, 2007)

These forms of organization tend to distribute rewards on the basis demonstrated individual accomplishment, not inherited privilege (Weber 1946, as cited in Steven 2007).  In this vision schools are crucial organizations in modern societies as they function to separate the ‘individual’ as a person from his position of his inheritance – the society which is even a formal position and a position of privilege. Scattered elsewhere but not precisely illuminated in his work, he evaluates that education serve importantantly as ‘political’ and ‘social system’ that makes a significant difference to individual as well as society. But at the same time the he explains the inequality gets viciously trapped within these different powers not entirely confined to education; By no means was Weber in a position to underestimate about the capacity of economic or political power to privilege itself through education, or “for schools themselves to be instruments of economic and political influence” (Steven, 2007). 

As to Steven (2007), on analyzing early studies concludes that, “formal schooling does indeed have independent effects on individual life chances; at the same time, parents tend to use formal education as a primary means of handing privilege down to their children”. This marks “Marx’s domination and Weber’s legitimation go hand in hand” (Collins, 1971) where education role ‘for both’ can be to prepare individuals and society of higher privilege, which will lead to better social harmony. 

The second and less explored position of Weber regarding the views of ‘Knowledge Science’-education has been briefly discussed in this paragraph. Weber not precisely but through his different sharing, including “Science (social) as a vocation” has expressed the concern over academic research viewpoints. Which has been analyzed by different scholars, and many of them evaluate him to be a pragmatic scholar! Weber comes strongly with the concept that ‘facts’ and ‘values’ are two different entities though both come in an exercise to build the knowledge. Lykin (2009) marks,

Thinkers as diverse as David Hume, Max Weber, and Patrick Baert have alleged that the difference between facts and values is so fundamental that to appeal to one in support of another is considered a logical fallacy. This view gives us a doubled epistemology, with one set of criteria for warranting belief about facts and another set of criteria for warranting belief about values.

When one tries to understand the two entities with the contemporary conscience it is even clearer that these two entities are different. The facts are always objective whereas values as concern with ‘individuality’ are always subjective. And if (social) science is objective, it must then go with facts alone. This sprouts a challenge; ‘knowledge without value?’, ‘Won’t it get lost in progression?’ This could be a never ending discourse for present, but more important here is to see Weber’s position on it.

Max Weber strongly resists the move to place (social) science at the center of moral inquiry (values). Echoing Nietzsche and foreshadowing developments in existentialism, Weber argues that scientific investigation cannot relieve us of the necessity to choose. For Weber, moral decisions are not reducible to empirical hypotheses. On his view, values are ever present in scientific inquiry, from the selection of research questions to the interpretation of results. (Lykin 2009)

But at the same time social science makes interpretation of facts which is colored by the values we hold and cannot be isolated during the empirical inquiry. The conflicts in between the facts and value have rumored many scholars. Lain (2003) evaluates Weber;

…“Science” is a notoriously misleading translation of the German Wissenschaft, which refers more broadly to the knowledge embodied in the humanities as well as the natural and social sciences. …For Weber, conflicting value judgments ultimately come down to a collision of incommensurable “worldviews,” a “struggle” between competing “godheads” (as he memorably puts it), and the university lectern is no place for “prophets dispensing sacred values.”

Weber comes with a conclusion to the confusion in a pragmatic way, “academics should confine themselves to the “stern seriousness” of sober “analyses and statements of fact” and so “set to work and meet ‘the demands of the day’” (Lain, 2003). This shows Weber’s alignment, ‘Weber is a pragmatic scientist’. 

Education and Sen

A book (study) report ‘Development as Freedom’ by Sen (1999) claims that it has explored the empirical connections and the link between freedom and development. Sen (1999) claims,

Freedom is the central to the process of development for two distinct reasons; 1). The evaluative reason; assessment of progress has to be done primarily in terms of whether the freedoms that people have are enhanced; 2). The effectiveness reason; achievement of development is thoroughly dependent on the free agency of people.

In this connection Nobel laureate has significantly highlighted the significance of fundamental human freedoms and human rights for development theory and practice. He had challenged the early domains of development which had emphasized development merely in terms of poverty, and simple market economy/utility.  Rather he adds emphasis on individual entitlements, capabilities, freedoms and rights and argues that the conventional development indicators are usually secured with these entities. When it comes to capabilities, education has a worth role, which is truly admired by Sen. Sen (1999) in his own statements argue;

What people positively achieve is influenced by economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and enabling conditions of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives. The institutional arrangements for these opportunities are also influenced by the exercise of people’s freedoms, through the liberty to participate in social choice and in making of public decisions that impel the progress of these opportunities.

Basic education for Sen is a pre-requisite to grab the opportunities and inculcate development /progressive move. Education to Sen has no confusions, he clearly marks, “… family income levels may be adjusted downward by illiteracy and upward by high levels of education”.

For Sen, the key is to let people make decisions about their own lives so they can choose the kind of life they value. Referring to his own writing, in an interview (Sen, 2004 with Laura Wallace, published in Finance and Development) he emphasizes development by expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. Sen, the Social Choice theorist evaluates education as a key to let people use freedom. Sen has asked for more public discussion on different issues; such as education, health, … that require a participatory process. He evaluates the need of public participation for education. One repetition that one can note in his arguments is, ‘individual (even means society; community, state, country) literacy’ is ‘clarity of thought’[1] and is very important to make the world a better place. For Sen, It is particularly important to emphasize the role of ‘choice’ in deciding what relative importance we would like to attach to our competing multiple identities. “I don’t see participation holding anything hostage,”(Sen , 2004). Now following Sen, it is obvious that people should know their reason for attaching them to what they like. This becomes possible through education, so education must be contributing to make an informed choice for positive change. In his own writings sen (1999) says, “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom; poverty… neglects public facility as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states”.  

Sen (1999) Chapter on “The ends and the means of development” clearly marks the role of education for the society. Where he explains about the ‘Primary ends (Constitutive role)’ and the ‘Principal means (Instrumental role)’ of freedom in development. He further classifies the ‘Instrumental Freedom’ into five categories: political freedoms; economic facilities; social opportunities; transparency guarantees; and protective securities. “These instrumental freedoms tend to contribute to the general capability of a person to live more freely, but they also serve to complement one another” (Sen, 1999). He legibly marks education is social opportunity and explains it; “Social opportunities refer to the arrangements that society makes for education, health care and so on, which influence the individual’s substantive freedom to live better” (ibid.). These facilities help for better personal life as well as increase participation in economic and political activities. He keeps an example: “For example, illiteracy can be a major barrier to participation in economic activities that require production according to specification or demand strict quality control (as globalized trade increasingly does) (Sen, 1999). While making evidences about the complimentary role of instrumental freedom, he makes an example of Japan’s economic development, which according to Sen’s view is complimented by social opportunities, especially the basic education. Summarizing the Sen’s position on education, he evaluates education is an important component to expand social opportunities for development - individual as well as of society (inseparable); this is why it demands a public participation to make it more instrumental.

Education in Nepal

Despite claim are there, “The close relationship between education and development has long been emphasized in Nepal” (Parajuli, & Wagley, 2010) there still lack good volumes of academic discourse in the area. “Even though the relationship between education and development was well established in development practices [in Nepal], systematic efforts for understanding the nature of relationship began much later” (ibid.). This has marked a need of scholars deploying themselves to study the practical interlinks/ practices between the development and education to the Nepalese context. While some scholars see dialectic discourses working with development studies in academia, I argue they aren’t to the level and more important to it is these have never been able to make practical implications. The state have structured almost all part of education system. The controversy ‘state unleashing the authority to school education is a virtual claim’ as the State still control the entire curriculum ‘to the extent of syllabus/contents’; in addition there is a usual (ongoing) control on the governance and finance. State has also declared free basic education but the arrangement and provisions are far from the reality. This indicates, the State has understood the social accountability of education but has not capacited the human resource as well as the bureaucracy (legitimate power) to perform in the order. Whereas some scholars even mark the political antagonism (Vollman, 2010) as one of the major reason that education (especially technical and vocational training education) could not be progressive in many countries of South Asia including Nepal. Referring this small chunk, I conclude that the education has hardly been able to establish a link in between development components in practices in Nepal. This is why; Parajuli & Wagley (2010) marks, “Integrating education and development; linking research and policy; building international as well as continuing efforts with building localized epistemologies” should remain the prioritized concerns for Nepal.

Conclusion

Education role has stood crucial for the development of the society. Theorists align to a common standpoint that all form of education can stand contributing to development. Comte despite his positivist position in philosophy, some constructive flavor exists in his concern in respect to education. Educating an individual child is more for a society over individual. Comte as a macrosociologist finds individual as a component of society, who plays a major role handling humanitarian crisis by education. Comte talks about education as ideal tool and important driver for social development where Marx always stick to materialistic concerns, this is where two differ in their position of education for society.  Despite Marx along with Engels do not speak very specifically on education, but many of their insights on social concern embody the educational concerns. As to their concern for expanding public education, it is clear that the Marx was convinced with the strength of education, but the only concern was to restructure then existing educational setting, which was conditioned for unequal society (production). This legibly indicates Marx value education as key material for social change. Marx had also agreed that education can stand strong to bring people to ideological alignment, but on other hand he even had a view that ‘life determines consciousnesses - materlisitic philosophy’ which counter his own argument of education. This is where I evaluate Marx is controversy about his position on role of education. Despite to it, to practical evaluation of education he evaluate that it can contribute for change towards an ideal society. Contrary to the materials/economic power, Weber argues multiple powers prevail in the social dynamics. To Weber education is the key for legitimizing these powers.  Weber estimates that education can stand as equal as to economic or political power in the society. Education (formal education) makes an independent effect on individual but at the same time this inherits to their children and this goes to positive change with the time. So here, what can be inferred is, Education compliments the domination (as to Marx) and legitimation as to Weber. Weber in his later work talks about the different phase of education; he evaluates a pragmatic link in between the facts and values. On his concern the personal (individual as well as social) values are important on the entire process of being educated and developed. Sen come with entirely different understanding for the development. Stating to the role of education for society, he clearly marks the role of education as one most important ‘instrument’ with an ability to equip individual with ‘social opportunities’. He had clearly marked education as one of the instrumental entities for development (freedom) and cannot be replaced by others.

References

Bourdeau, M. (2011). Auguste Comte.  The stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Zalta E. N. (ed.). CSLI, US: The Stanford University.

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Muglioni, J. (1999). Auguste Comte (1796-1857). The quarterly review of comparative education (XXVI) 1, March 1996, pp. 209-22.Paris: UNESCO-International Bureau of Education.

The Bee-Hive, (August 14, 1869). Karl Marx address in the Basle congress, August 10, 1869.

Kellner, D. (2005). Marxian perspectives on educational philosophy: from classical marxism to critical pedagogy. CA: UCLA Press.

Ivkovic, M. (1999). Marxist theoretical and methodological approach and orientation in the sociology of education. Philosophy and sociology (2)6/2 pp. 225 – 233.UDC:303:37.015.4:37.015.2.

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Lain, T. (2003). Heidegger and the politics of the university. Journal of the history of philosophy, (41)4. pp. 515-542. DOI: 10.1353/hph.2003.0069

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Sen, A. (September, 2004). Persnal interview by Laura Wallace.  Finance and development. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund.

Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc.

Parajuli, M. N. & Wagley M. P. (2010). Comparative education and development: reflection from Nepal. Compare 40(6). DOI: 10.1080/03057925.2010.523262

Vollman, W. (2010). The challenge of technical and vocational training and education in rural areas: the case of South-Asia. Journal of education and research. 2. Kathmandu: Kathmandu University School of Education.

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[1] The term used by Laura Wallace on his article debriefing the personal interview with Amartya Sen (2004).